The Case of Rice Smuggling Essay Example

The Case of Rice Smuggling Essay Smuggling seems to be rampant nowadays, as you listen the news today have you heard about the raid conducted In Appearance City? Where lots of fake products were confiscated Inside the warehouse owned by Mayor Olivarez of Appearance. Have you seen those branded shoes shown over the television those are fake products, We can compare this situation to our current Rice smuggling here in the Philippines. According to FINN Filipinos waste POP. Million Worth of rice Alone a day, this seems to be alarming because many were less fortunate to eat rice in a day while some Fullness were Just wasting Rice can you Imagine wasting food than giving your excess to the less fortunate? The Rice smuggling today were Just common to our past Philippine Government were they wasted budget importing rice from other countries which our country is named the Capital Rice of Asia way back 1995. Our country is not capable anymore supplying the demand of our people for rice thus the Government think of alternative ways to cope up with this demand by importing rice room our neighboring countries. But our corrupt and unscrupulous public politicians engage In several scams today Like the PDA scam which Involves many officials, I hope their conscience can take It even If they see some Filipino people who are poor, especially the marginalia people. If you see the news today have you heard the name Mr We will write a custom essay sample on The Case of Rice Smuggling specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Case of Rice Smuggling specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Case of Rice Smuggling specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer David Tan who is famous of becoming the lord smuggler in Dave, Mayor Deterred curse him to kill if caught because of eagerness to eliminate the smuggling in his province, if Mayor Deterred is Eke everyone else in the government do you think rice smuggling in the Philippines would exist? I heard Mayor Deterred also implements In his province shoot-to-kill policy when criminals tries to resist police force the force shall use lethal weapon to eliminate the criminal Immediately whichever the circumstances are. This policy is very helpful to our society nowadays, riding in tandems, robbery, extortion, smuggler, law invaders and others. If caught the Justice should immediately flourish by then criminals would be afraid of to cross the lines of law and order. You know excessive freewill sometimes lead us to destruction of our society but with limited freewill given on us the society may progress towards economic growth because of law abiding colleens of our nation the fear of punishment prevails. I hope the government officials would find ways to eliminate rice smuggling in the Philippines, I still believe on the motto of our government outdid an Dana but sometimes I doubt that we might end up to dead end. My hope and support to the free, All sins are equal in the eyes of god and we will be Judge by our works during our life here on earth. Peace be with you! As the Father has sent me, I am sending you John 20:21. So start the mission each of us has a task to do. The beginning of change starts from us, the Youth!

What Introvert and Extrovert Really Mean

What Introvert and Extrovert Really Mean Think about what an ideal evening for you might look like. Do you imagine yourself going out to dinner with a large group of friends, attending a concert, or going to a club? Or would you prefer to spend the evening catching up with a close friend or getting lost in a good book? Psychologists consider our responses to questions such as these our levels of  introversion  and  extroversion:  personality traits that relate to our preferences for how we interact with others. Below, well discuss what introversion and extroversion are and how they impact our well-being. The Five-Factor Model   Introversion and extroversion have been the subject of psychological theories for decades. Today, psychologists who study personality often see introversion and extroversion as part of what is known as the  five-factor model  of personality. According to this theory, peoples personalities can be described based on their levels of five personality traits:  extroversion  (of which introversion is the opposite),  agreeableness  (altruism and concern for others),  conscientiousness  (how organized and responsible someone is),  neuroticism  (how much someone experiences negative emotions), and  openness to experience  (which includes traits such as imagination and curiosity). In this theory, personality traits range along a spectrum. Psychologists who use the five-factor model see the trait of extroversion as having multiple components. Those who are more extroverted tend to be more social, more talkative, more assertive, more likely to seek out excitement, and are thought to experience more positive emotions. People who are more introverted, on the other hand, tend to be quieter and more reserved during social interactions. Importantly, shyness isnt the same thing as introversion: introverts can be shy or anxious in social situations, but this isnt always the case. Additionally, being an introvert doesnt mean that someone is antisocial. As Susan Cain, bestselling author and introvert herself, explains in an interview with  Scientific American, Were not anti-social; were differently social. I cant live without my family and close friends, but I also crave solitude.   The 4 Different Types of Introverts   In 2011, psychologists at  Wellesley College suggested that there may actually be several different kinds of introverts.  Since introversion and extroversion are broad categories, the authors suggested that not all extroverts and introverts are the same. The authors suggest that there are four categories of introversion:  social  introversion,  thinking  introversion,  anxious  introversion, and inhibited/restrained introversion.  In this theory, a social introvert is someone who enjoys spending time alone or in small groups. A thinking introvert is someone who tends to be introspective and thoughtful. Anxious introverts are those who tend to be shy, sensitive, and self-conscious in social situations. Inhibited/restrained introverts tend not to seek out excitement and prefer more relaxed activities.   Is it better to be an introvert or an extrovert?   Psychologists have suggested that extroversion is correlated with positive emotions; that is, people who are more extroverted tend to be happier than introverts... but is this actually the case? Psychologists who studied this question found that extroverts often do experience more positive emotions than introverts. Researchers have also found evidence that there are indeed  Ã¢â‚¬Å"happy introverts†: when researchers looked at happy participants in a study, they found that about one-third of these participants were also introverts. In other words, more extroverted people may experience positive emotions slightly more often on average, but many happy people are actually introverts. Writer Susan Cain, author  of the bestselling book Quiet: The Power of Introverts points out that, in American society, extroversion is often seen as a good thing. For example, workplaces and classrooms often encourage group work, an activity that comes more naturally to extroverts. In an interview with  Scientific American, Cain points out that we are neglecting the potential contributions of introverts when we do this. Cain explains that being an introvert actually has some advantages. For example, she suggests that introversion may be related to creativity. Additionally, she suggests that introverts can make good managers in workplaces, because they may give their employees more freedom to pursue projects independently and may be more focused on the organizations goals than their individual success. In other words, even though extroversion is often valued in our current society, being an introvert has benefits as well. That is, it isnt necessarily better to be either an introvert or an extrovert. These two ways of relating to others each have their own unique advantages, and understanding our personality traits can help us  study and work with others more effectively. Introvert  and  extrovert  are terms that psychologists have used for decades to explain personality. Most recently, psychologists have considered these traits to be part of the five-factor model, widely used to measure personality. Researchers who study introversion and extroversion have found that these categories have important consequences for our well-being and behavior. Importantly, research suggests that each way of relating to others has its own advantages; in other words, its not possible to say that one is better than the other. Sources McCrae, R. R., John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the five†factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60(2), 175-215. http://psych.colorado.edu/~carey/courses/psyc5112/readings/psnbig5_mccrae03.pdfTen-item personality inventory. https://gosling.psy.utexas.edu/scales-weve-developed/ten-item-personality-measure-tipi/ten-item-personality-inventory-tipi/Cook, Gareth (2012, January 24). The power of introverts: A manifesto for quiet brilliance. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-power-of-introverts/Grimes, J.O., Cheek, J.M., Norem, J.K. (2011, January). Four meanings of introversion: Social, thinking, anxious, and inhibited introversion. Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, San Antonio, TX. academia.edu/7353616/Four_Meanings_of_Introversion_Social_Thinking_Anxious_and_Inhibited_IntroversionDiener, E., Oishi, S., Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being : Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403-425. http://people.virginia.edu/~so5x/Diener,%20Oishi,%20%20Lucas%202003%20Ann.%20Review.pdf Hills, P., Argyle, M. (2001). Happiness, introversion–extraversion and happy introverts. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(4), 595-608. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886900000581Cain, S. (2013). Quiet: The power of introverts in a world that cant stop talking. Broadway Books. https://books.google.com/books/about/Quiet.html?idDc3T6Y7g7LQCFleming, Grace. How does personality affect study habits? ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-personality-affects-study-habits-1857077

The Change in Male and Female Roles Before & Today Essay

The Change in Male and Female Roles Before & Today - Essay Example Speaking of social expectations for both, males are expected to provide for the family or pay for dates at all times while females are to manage the children, the household, and provide emotional support (Jaffari, TTS Holistic Counselor Mehdi, n.d.) Looking at the male and females roles in relationships today in contrast to what I have mentioned above, there has been a lot of reversal of roles. Females today are not secluded to giving signals when showing interest in a guy. Being direct and honest about the feeling, verbally or inaction is already welcome. When it comes to courtship, males are not the only ones who does the pursuing. There are a lot of aggressive girls today who will do everything to get what she wants, and taking a guy out for dates have started to be a common thing. When it comes to male and female responsibilities, males are not the only ones expected to bring in food in the table. Instead, women today are more empowered to take on a job and a journey towards self-actualization that does not stop when she finally gets married.

Health care system Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health care system - Research Paper Example A simple majority vote allows the bill to move to senate, and the same procedure is repeated. A simple majority vote is sufficient to pass the bill through this stage. The final stage includes an assessment of the bill by the conference committee that compares resultant bill versions from the two stages. Finally, the bill returns to the senate and the House for approval. After the approval the bill is printed and delivered to the president to veto or sign it in to law (United States House of Representatives, 2012). The passage of bills into laws does not however, only include the political class. In addition to the politicians, other special groups such as consumer groups, lobbyists and other stakeholders often take part indirectly in the legislative process. These groups often take part by engaging in advocacy processes. This involves stating and identifying issues, gathering information, mobilizing people, seeking resources, creating alliances, networking, seeking media support, co ntacting the government and coercing legislators to support the bills. In a nut shell, such teams work to ensure that the bill is passed into law (Michael, 2012). The passage of the Affordable Care Act is a good example of legislations that received considerable support from consumer groups, lobbyists and other stakeholders. ... On the other hand, republicans, insurance companies and conservatives were opposed to the bill. Notably, various advocacy groups engaged in pushing legislators to pass the bill. In addition, they engaged in various activities within the advocacy framework such as sensitizing the public and gathering research information on the effects of the bill. The supportive advocacy groups included the â€Å"American Association of Retired Persons† (AARP), â€Å"National Association for the Advancement of Colored People† (NAACP), â€Å"American Medical Association† (AMA), and the â€Å"American Osteopathic Association† (AOA) among many others (Roy, 2012; SurgiStrategies, 2012: Hughes, 2010). 2. Discuss the expanding role of public health services in today's environment in terms of wellness, prevention, and bioterrorism Primary Healthcare (PHC) denotes professional healthcare delivered by practice nurses and general practitioners. PHC covers a wide range of preventive and health services, including screening, disease prevention, counseling and education. It also concerns issues of health access enhancement, environment and lifestyle changes. Primary healthcare is important in defining the quality of life and health of a population because it intervenes in the health sustenance process earlier before the development of diseases or conditions that favor diseases (Academy Health, 2009). PHC plays a significant role in educating the public on how to develop better health within communities by educating them on environmental issues and preventive matters. The fact that PHC intervenes before the occurrence of diseases makes it important in the healthcare

Marketing Report -- Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing Report -- Case Study - Essay Example Table of Contents Executive Summary 2 4 Marketing Situation 4 Marketing Strategies 5 Motivation of Employees 6 Building Blocks of Internal Marketing 6 Implementation of Internal Marketing Activities 7 Current Marketing Strategies 9 Alternative Strategy and Their Impact 9 1. Centralized Strategic Planning Resource 9 2. Senior Management Participation 10 3. Performance Appraisal Criteria 10 Recommendation 11 Conclusion 12 References 13 Marketing Situation In today’s competitive market, customer satisfaction is an important factor that should be undertaken by every organization. The theoretical context of customer satisfaction was first operationalized in the year 1985. Customers can be satisfied once the organization is able to identify the expectation level of the customers. The company will be able to achieve the expectation level of the customer only if the internal employees are happy and satisfied. The employees are internal customers for the organization, thus, it is neces sary to take care of their staffs or employees because they are involved in assisting the customers. In ING Direct call centre department, the calls are answered by their employees. The employee motivation is also an important way to meet the customers’ expectation and therefore the company will be able to achieve the sustainable growth. ... ING Direct is also highly dependent on the employees’ satisfaction as the company provides financial services where the employees have the responsibility to interact with the customers for generating their faith and trust (Rafiq & Ahmed, 2000). Marketing Strategies The strategies are the plans of an organization to achieve goals and objectives which show direction to the organization. The strategies are developed at different levels such as corporate, business, divisional and departmental level. All the strategies are integrated to form a plan for the organization as a whole. The support from the other components of business unit function such as production, finance and R&D are necessary to achieve the marketing objectives. Every department is inter-related and has to combine together in an integrated manner while taking a strategic decision (Corey, 2003). Marketing strategies mainly focus on long term competitive and consumer advantages and are composed of different elements. These are the strategies related to selection of product and market, deciding the price of a product, finding out the best possible distribution system, i.e. wholesale or retail channel and creating awareness of the product to different customers through advertisement in newspaper, television and others (Corey, 2003). The strategies are driven by cost, technology, distribution, service or other competitive advantages of the firm to turn out to be successful, but the company is required to be consistent with customers’ needs, perception and preferences (Wind & Robertson, 1983). According to Mornay Roberts-Lombard (2007), internal marketing emphasizes on the teamwork of the employees in developing and retaining successful business strategies. The internal marketing means that

Protective Effects Of Fluoride Toothpastes Health And Social Care Essay

Protective Effects Of Fluoride Toothpastes Health And Social Care Essay The main aim of this report is to discuss the evidence for the protective effects of fluoride toothpastes and varnishes. In addition, I will discuss their application and mode of action. To begin with, I will give a brief history of fluoride and how it fits into the reversal of tooth decay. I will discuss fluoride varnishes namely Duraphat, Fluor Protector and Duraflor and their effect on the DMF Index and their roles in school based prevention programmes. There are other varnishes such as Lawefluor and Bifluorid but these are less commonly used and therefore, I will not be discussing them. After discussing fluoride varnishes, I will consider fluoride toothpastes. I will give a description on the composition of a typical toothpaste and the effect of fluoride toothpastes on the DMF Index. In addition, I will discuss the effects of high fluoride concentration toothpastes. Finally, I will compare both toothpastes and varnishes. Contents Pages Summary Contents Introduction Deposition of fluoride in enamel What is tooth decay? Fluoride: Mode of Action Who is at risk of decay? Optimum fluoride concentration required for remineralisation DMF Index Main Section What are fluoride varnishes? Effect on DMFT/S The effect of fluoride varnishes according to different caries risk School based prevention programmes The use of fluoride varnish in inhibiting secondary carious lesions What are fluoride toothpastes? Use of fluoride toothpastes in clinical trials High Fluoride toothpastes The use of fluoride toothpastes in advanced enamel lesions Comparison of Toothpastes and Varnishes Conclusion Acknowledgements Word Count References Introduction I have decided to carry out this report on fluoride as I realise the importance of its role in the prevention of tooth decay (dental caries). Fluoride is a negative ion of the element fluorine and is found naturally in water, foods, soil, and minerals such as fluorite (calcium fluoride) and fluorapatite. Fluoride can also be synthesised in laboratories where it can be added to oral hygiene products and to water. Fluoride utilisation has occurred in two phases: before water fluoridation in the 1950s and after the widespread use of fluoridated dentifrices in the 1980s (Cury, Tenuta 2008) when less than 10% of toothpastes contained fluoride compared with 96% at present. Fluoride is most effective post-eruptively (Oganessian, Lencova Broukal 2007) where the effects are generally topical and therefore, it is important for a constant fluoride concentration to be maintained in the oral environment. Topically applied fluoride provides high concentrations of fluoride to surfaces of the denti tion. This provides a local protective effect and prevents ingestion of large amounts of fluoride. (Marinho et al. 2004) Deposition of fluoride in enamel During apatite crystal formation, low concentrations of fluoride are incorporated into the tooth structure. This leads to supersaturation with respect to fluoridated hydroxyapatite: {{66 ten Cate,J.M. 2008) Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2+ F-= Ca10(PO4)6(F)2 + 2OH- (Fluorapatite) After calcification is complete and prior to eruption, additional fluoride is taken up by the surface enamel. After eruption, the enamel continues to take up fluoride from its oral environment leading to its profound topical effects (Kidd 2005). What is tooth decay? It is important to consider the causes of tooth decay and how fluoride can be used to reverse the carious process. Dental Caries is a multifactorial disease caused by the action of acidogenic and aciduric bacteria (Streptococcus Mutans and Lactobacilli ({{32 Featherstone,J.D. 2008}}) on fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose. Salivary glycoproteins form a pellicle on the tooth to which these bacteria attach to forming a pathogenic biofilm and over time, acid demineralisation and proteolytic destruction of the organic component of the enamel and dentine takes place (Young, Kutsch Whitehouse 2009). Dental Caries can be classified in several ways According to location-Caries may be restricted to pits and fissures but may also progress to expose the pulp. Restorative status of the tooth- Primary caries occurs on previously unrestored teeth whereas secondary caries occurs at margins of restorations {{52 Kidd,Edwina A.M. 2005}}. Secondary caries is caused by local factors that are involved in the formation of cariogenic plaque. Most secondary carious lesions develop at the gingival margins of restorations primarily in areas of stagnation areas (Mjà ¶r, 1998). Large gaps between the restoration and the wall of the cavity preparation can create an environment that favours secondary caries formation (Mjà ¶r, 1998). Secondary caries is also known as recurrent caries. Caries can be arrested whereby a lesion which was previously active has now stopped progressing. Fluoride: Mode of Action Fig 1: Demineralisation Process and the role of fluoride (Cury, Tenuta 2008) Figure one shows how sugars such as sucrose, glucose and fructose are converted to acids in the plaque biofilm. When the pH decreases below 5.5 (critical pH of enamel), the saliva is no longer supersaturated with calcium and phosphate. Therefore, demineralisation occurs. However, in the presence of fluoride and if the pH is higher than 4.5, hydroxyapatite is converted to fluorapatite which has a lower solubility. As a result, net demineralization is reduced and the dental hard tissues are more acid resistant. Tenuta and colleagues calculated that fluorapatite would not dissolve until the pH dropped below approximately 4.4. However, researchers have found that the effect of fluoride is not only due to the decreased solubility but also due to the effect of fluoride on the rates of demineralisation and remineralisation (Stoodley et al. 2008). In order to enter bacteria, fluoride must be combined with a hydrogen ion forming hydrogen fluoride (HF), which readily diffuses into the cell. Once inside the bacterial cell, the HF dissociates into fluoride and hydrogen ions. The fluoride inhibits intracellular bacterial enzymes such as enolase. As a result, less phosphoenolpyruvate and lactate are formed. The reduced lactate formation limits the ability of bacteria to cause caries. Similarly, the uptake of glucose is also reduced by fluoride {{63 Featherstone,J.D. September 2004}}. The fluoride concentration in saliva increases after brushing with a fluoride toothpaste. After three minutes, the concentration is 100 times greater than the baseline value (normally 0.03ppm or 1.6umol/l) {{65 Murray, J.J 1991}}. Two hours later, the concentration returns to normal. It is important to avoid rinsing out the mouth as the most profound effects of fluoride are within two hours of brushing. Fluoride is spread throughout the oral cavity and is stored in compartments on the tooth surface and the remaining pellicle (Cury, Tenuta 2008). Calcium Fluoride globules are formed and are reservoirs of fluoride, releasing it as the pH falls, thereby, reducing time spent in the demineralisation phase. The main effects of fluoride can be attributed to the maintenance of constant fluoride levels in the biofilm. Overall, fluoride has multiple ways of reducing caries. It is believed that the most important of these methods is the remineralisation concept {{40 Oganessian,E. 2007}}, which requires a constant flow of fluoride. Bacterial enzyme inhibition plays a supplementary role when the concentration of fluoride is high which is achieved by topical fluoride applications and toothpastes (Murray, Rugg-Gunn Jenkins 1991). Who is at risk of decay? There are certain groups in the population who are at risk of decay and therefore, would benefit from the use of fluoridated dentifrices. These include patients with: Xerostomia, which may have resulted from the radiotherapy to the head or neck leading to salivary gland exposure. This leads to a decrease in both the resting and stimulated salivary flow rates. Xerostomia is defined as the complete absence of saliva or hyposalivation. Hyposalivation leads to decreased levels of calcium, phosphate and hydrogen bicarbonate ions. As a result, there is a longer demineralisation phase Sjà ¶grens syndrome- this is clinically defined as at least two of kerataoconjuctivitis sicca, Xerostomia(dry mouth) and rheumatoid arthritis or another connective tissue disease {{62 Newbrun,E. 1996}} A high incidence of caries in their primary dentition Hypersensitivity Root caries Removable orthodontic appliances and partial dentures A poor diet and those who regularly snack on fermentable carbohydrates {{37 Evans,R.W. 2008}}. However, this risk has decreased due to better plaque control and increased fluoride exposure. Multiple restorations suggesting a high prevalence of caries Optimum fluoride concentration required for remineralisation Bjarnason and Finnbogason (1991) found that fluoride levels in dentifrices had no effect on the progression of enamel lesions detected radiographically. However, a higher fluoride concentration (1000ppm F-) led to reduction in caries initiation compared to a dentifrice with a lower fluoride concentration (250ppm F-) {{69 Bjarnason, S. 1991}}. It is ultimately difficult to decide the optimum fluoride concentration required for remineralisation as different areas of the mouth are more at risk of caries due to unique ecological factors. However, it was thought that lesion progression in enamel was slowed down only in patients with low caries activity whereas patients with high caries activity still experienced rapid progression (Hellwig, Lussi 2001). DMF Index The DMF index is a measure of caries activity in a population and changes in the DMF index can be used to highlight the protective effects of the fluoride toothpastes and varnishes (Kidd 2005). D: decayed teeth with untreated carious lesions M: missing teeth (extracted teeth) F: filled teeth DMFT denotes decayed, missing and filled teeth DMFS denotes decayed, missing and filled surfaces in permanent teeth and therefore, the number of surfaces attacked on each tooth are accounted for. There are similar indices for deciduous tooth, which are the defs and deft scores. The e represents extracted teeth to differentiate(Johansen et al. 1987) between natural loss of teeth through exfoliation. Burt in 1998 suggested that greater emphasis has to be placed on the assessment and early diagnosis of caries {{77 Burt, B.A. 1998}}. This has been backed up by cohort studies {{83 Johansen, E. 1987}} (Axelsson, Lindhe Nystrom 1991), which found that the use of preventive strategies (fluoride application) resulted in a substantial reduction in lesion development and progression. Fluoride varnishes What is fluoride varnish? Fluoride varnish was first developed in New York in 1968 by Heuser and Schmidt in the form of sodium fluoride and was marketed under the name Duraphat. The Duraphat varnish contains 22,600 parts per million of fluoride (ppm Fˆ°) as shown in figure 2. In the 1970s, there was a switch from sodium fluoride to difluorsilane which was marketed under the name Fluor Protector (7000ppm Fˆ°) in Germany {{42 Azarpazhooh,A. 2008}}. Fluoride Varnish Type of fluoride Fluoride Concentration(ppm) Fluoride Concentration(%) Duraphat Sodium Fluoride 22,600 2.26 Duraflor Sodium Fluoride 22,600 2.26 Fluor protector Difluorsilane 7,000 0.70 Fig 2: The table above shows the fluoride varnishes that are most commonly used. Other types of fluoride varnishes include: Fluoride Varnish Type of fluoride Fluoride Concentration(ppm) Fluoride Concentration (%) Lawefluor Sodium Fluoride 22,600 2.2 Bifluorid Sodium and Calcium Fluoride 56,300 5.6 Fig 3: The table above shows other fluoride varnishes which are available but are less commonly used {{24 Davies,G.M. 2008}}. Most fluoride varnishes contain fluoride in an alcoholic solution of natural tree resin. The main advantage of the varnish is that the resin base is very adherent to the tooth prolonging contact time between the fluoride and enamel {{26 Miller,E.K. et al 2008}}. Varnishes are easy to apply and relatively safe regardless of the high fluoride concentration as the amount of varnish applied to one child is only 0.5 ml on average (Ripa 1990; Petersson 1993). Varnishes are slow-releasing reservoirs of fluoride preventing immediate release of fluoride after application (Ogaard 1994). As a result, they are most effective at protecting against primary caries. The food and drug administration centre in America has not yet accepted fluoride varnish as an anti-caries agent but considered it as a liner/desensitising agent (Mason 2005). There is some debate as to the amount of fluoride taken up by the tooth surfaces. It was found that approximately half of the fluoride taken up by sound surfaces from Fluor Protector varnish was lost after 6 months suggesting that the large amount of fluoride taken up after one week does not bind permanently to enamel and that the effects of fluoride are more short term. There has also been a debate over whether fluoride varnish should be applied to wet or dry surfaces. Koch et al found that the fluoride uptake was much greater when the varnish was applied to dry tooth surfaces (Koch, Hakeberg Petersson 1988). Fluoride varnishes can be applied professionally up to two to four times a year. Marinho et al in 2002 investigated the effectiveness of fluoride varnish in preventing dental caries in children compared to a placebo or no treatment. Over 2700 systemically healthy children aged 16 or less received fluoride varnish containing 22,600ppm sodium fluoride. There was a large caries inhibiting effect on both permanent and deciduous dentition. However, the confidence intervals were relatively wide and the variation among the results was substantial. The success of the treatment may have been over estimated, as the results of the few trials may not have been representative. As a result, it is important to carry out more trials before a definite statement can be made of the effects of the fluoride varnish (Marinho 2002). In addition, more information is required on the scale of the fluoride effect and the adverse effects of fluoride. Effect on the DMFT/dmft Primary Dentition There was a 33% decrease in the decayed, missing and filled surfaces (Marinho 2002). A two year randomised clinical trial carried out on children with a mean age of 1.8 years, found that the application of fluoride varnish once, twice and three times a year reduced the mean dmfs by 53%, 58% and 93% respectively {{67 Davies,G.M. 2009}}. This highlights the importance of frequent varnish application. (Petersson, Twetman Pakhomov 1998)Petersson et al. in 1998 found a 19% and 25% reduction in the increment of approximal caries in children with a moderate or high caries risk respectively. This shows that children with a high caries risk benefit the most from the application of fluoride varnishes (Zimmer 2001). Ages 0-3 Weintraub and colleagues carried out a two year randomised controlled trial on 376 children aged between 6-44 months (Weintraub et al. 2006). The children were split into three groups: Those who received counselling Those who received counselling and the annual application of Duraphat Those who received counselling and the twice yearly application at six monthly intervals The number of lesions only increased in children who received counselling alone highlighting the protective effects of the varnish. Those children who received no varnish application were twice as likely of developing decay as those who received the annual application of fluoride. As the frequency of fluoride varnish application increased, the number of carious lesions decreased. One drawback of this trial was that simultaneous counselling and varnish application led to some ambiguity as to whether the effects were due to varnish application or counselling although fluoride application was seen to play a key role. Ages 3-6 According to the Cochrane Review, there was an overall 38% reduction in the DMFS/dmfs (Marinho 2002). A two year randomised study of 1,275 children in Canada aged between 6 months and 5 years found that twice-yearly application of Durafluor led to an 18.3% reduction in the dmfs increment (Lawrence et al. 2006). Mixed dentition There was on average a 46% decrease in dmfs. The fluoride varnish was an effective preventive measure for partially erupted permanent molars. Equally, patients who are insufficiently co-operative benefit from fluoride varnish application (Marinho 2002). Permanent dentition A randomised clinical trial used to examine the impact of fluoride varnish on the incidence of approximal caries, detected radiographically in 13 year olds over a three year period, found that the varnish applied monthly and twice a year reduced caries by 76% and 57% respectively again highlighting the importance of frequent fluoride application{{67 Davies,G.M. 2009}}. The caries reduction in permanent teeth shown in the Cochrane review of trials was similar to that achieved in a metaanalysis carried out by Helfenstein in 1994 when Duraphat was applied 2 times a year in children aged 9-15 years (Helfenstein, Steiner 1994). There was a 38% reduction in the caries. It is likely that most of the participants benefited from the use of a fluoridated dentifrice as the majority of the studies were carried out in Scandinavian countries between 1973 and 1987. However, as both the Cochrane review and the Helfenstien study were carried out involving a different selection criteria, it is debatab le as to whether the results from both these trials can be compared. In conclusion, application of fluoride varnish two to four times a year on both permanent and deciduous teeth is associated with a reduction in the caries increment (Marinho 2002). The effect of fluoride varnish according to different caries risks Mà ¶berg Skold carried out a trial which involved the application of fluoride varnish to approximal caries in adolescents living in different caries risk areas. The trial involved 758 students aged between 13 to16 years old. The large sample size meant that the results of this study were representative. This is because as the sample size increases, the variability of the results decreases. This means that the results have a greater statistical power and smaller confidence intervals. Fig 4: (Azarpazhooh, Main 2008) The figure above shows the groups which were chosen according to their caries risk and whether they had any fluoride in their tap water. Duraphat was applied to the approximal surfaces from the distal surface of the canines to the mesial surface of the second molars. Each group had different intervals of application shown in the figure below: Group No. of participants Frequency of Duraphat application One 190 Twice yearly in six-monthly intervals ( 6 times in 3 years) Two 186 Three times a year with a one week period each year(9 times in 3 years) Three 201 Eight times a year during school terms with one month intervals ( 24 times in 3 years) Four(Control) 181 No application Fig 5: (Azarpazhooh, Main 2008) The frequency of Duraphat application The results from this trial show that the biggest difference was between group one and the control group in high caries risk area (Gà ¶teborg). However, there was no significant difference between the groups regarding filled approximal lesions and approximal enamel lesions. There was a greater incidence of caries in the control group in comparison to the fluoride varnish groups in all risk areas highlighting the protective effects of the fluoride varnish (Mà ¶berg Skold et al. 2005). Overall, it was found that the school based monthly application of fluoride varnish is the best method of preventing approximal caries in areas of medium and high caries risk (Mà ¶berg Skold et al. 2005). School based prevention programmes A cluster randomised trial was carried out by M.C Hardman and colleagues involving 2,091 school children living in a non-fluoridated area. One group of students (1,025 students) received the twice-yearly application of Colgate Duraphat varnish whilst the other group (1,066 students) served as a control. This study found that the twice-yearly application of fluoride varnish did not lead to a reduction in caries in children living in the community {{43 Hardman,M.C. 2007}}. This is contrary to what was found by Marinho and colleagues. They found that the biannual application of Duraphat in a school-based programme provided a caries inhibition of 38% in children aged 9-15 years (Marinho 2002). The study carried out by M.C Hardman and colleagues did not prove to be conclusive as the level of consent in the community was low. Approximately 110 students were lost during the study. The control group had lower caries levels than anticipated and therefore, it was difficult to tell the true eff ect of fluoride. In addition, the application of varnish was carried out under sub-optimal conditions (teeth could not be cleaned prior to application and the consumption of food and drink after application could not be controlled), which could have resulted in less profound effects. In conclusion, it was found that this type of fluoride varnish intervention is not effective in the prevention of caries in the public {{43 Hardman,M.C. 2007}}. A similar study was carried in a small town located in the American Southwest on children attending a head start nursery using Duraflor as the varnish of choice. The trial began in the head start class of 2002. Duraflor was applied during well child visits every 9, 12, 15, 18, 24 and 30 months. The class of 2003 had no fluoride application and therefore, served as the control. The mean age was 4.40 years and approximately 168 males and 189 females took part. The results showed that children who received no treatment had a mean dmfs of 23.6 with a 95% confidence interval. Those children who received 1-3 treatments had a similar dmfs to those with no treatment. Only those children who had 4 to 5 treatments showed a reduction in dmfs again suggesting the importance of frequent application. However, this study was an observational study not a randomised study and therefore, the reliability of the results can be questioned. In addition, no attempt was made to determine whether the childre n who received four or more applications of fluoride varnish differed from the other children in terms of diet and oral hygiene history {{58 Holve,S. 2008}}.. The use of fluoride varnish in inhibiting secondary carious lesions As mentioned earlier, secondary caries forms at the margins of restorations. Larger amounts of fluoride varnish may be trapped in the gap formed between the restoration and the cavity wall. This may serve as a slow releasing reservoir of fluoride, which could also provide a physical barrier against wall dissolution. In a study carried out by M. Fontana in 1996, two experiments were carried out. Experiment one involved the application of Duraflor. Experiment two involved the application of Duraphat a year after the application of Duraflor. The effects of fluoride varnish on secondary caries remineralisation and lesion progression were measured. The varnish was applied to dry tooth surfaces and rinsing after fluoride application was prevented to enhance the remineralisation potential. The varnish was applied for 24 hours to prolong the contact time between the varnish and the tooth surface. The results from these two experiments showed that fluoride application slowed down lesion progression around both amalgam and composite restorations {{48 Fontana, M. 2002}}. The placebo varnish slowed down lesion progression to a lesser extent than the fluoride varnish suggesting that the effects may not only be attributed to the fluoride in the varnish. These results matched those in a previous study carried out by Hellwig et al. in 1993. They examined the effect of Duraphat varnish on artificially created primary carious lesions and found that fluoride varnish led to remineralisation in the outer layers of enamel {{78 Hellwig, E.K. 1993}}. This slowed down lesion progression. Seppa suggested in 1988 that the benefits of fluoride varnish were attributed to their ability to enhance remineralisation of primary caries rather than their ability to increase the fluoride content of the tooth surface. This is contrary to what was previously thought that the effects of topical fluoride were due to their ability to maintain high levels of fluoride on the surface of the tooth. Seppa also found that the efficacy of the fluoride varnishes was dependent on the number of applications rather than the concentration of fluoride {{79 Seppà ¤, L. 1988}}. This backs up the results found by Marinho et al that showed that the more frequent the applicati on, the lower the incidence of new caries or the greater the decrease in mean dmfs/DMFS. Fluoride toothpaste What is fluoride toothpaste? Fluoride toothpaste is the most widely used method of fluoride application in the population due to its ease of use. Fluoride toothpastes can be incorporated into community and school based prevention programmes. Most oral health care workers recommend brushing twice a day, once just before going to bed, as this is when saliva flow is at its lowest and once at another time of day{{68 Davies,R.M. 2003}}. They recommend spitting out the toothpaste after use rather than rinsing as this dilutes the fluoride concentration in the oral cavity as previously mentioned. The widespread use of fluoride toothpastes had made it more difficult to distinguish whether a reduction in caries is due to mechanical plaque removal or due to the incorporation of fluoride. Before the widespread use of fluoride toothpastes, the importance of fluoride was illustrated in a three-year study. This study involved two groups of children aged 9 to 11 years who had benefited from supervised brushing either with or without fluoride toothpaste. Both groups showed a reduction in plaque and gingivitis but a significant reduction in caries was only seen in the group which used fluoridated toothpastes (Davies et al. 2003). A typical toothpaste contains abrasives such as calcium carbonates, which help to remove surface debris, and stains on the tooth surface. Most toothpastes contain fluoride (added to toothpastes in the 1970s) to make the tooth more resistant to acid attack and is one of the most recognised agents in toothpastes. Stannous fluoride (also known as tin fluoride) was the first fluoride to be used due to its compatibility with the abrasive, calcium phosphate. Sodium fluoride could not be used at first as the calcium in the abrasive renders it ineffective and therefore, is not compatible. Sodium Monofluorophosphate was next used as it was compatible with the abrasives used with it. Sodium Fluoride could only be used when hydrated silica and sodium bicarbonate became the abrasive of choice. Studies have shown that the sodium bicarbonate-sodium fluoride combination lead to a caries reduction of one surface per child over two years (Murray, Rugg-Gunn Jenkins 1991). Fluorides have been shown to work better in combination with detergents such as sodium lauryl sulphates, which aid the remineralisation process and create foaming whilst brushing. Toothpastes contain humectants such as glycerol, which prevent the loss of water in the toothpaste. To provide taste, saccharin and other sweeteners are added. To stabilise the toothpaste, thickening agents such as seaweed colloids are included to ensure that the toothpaste stays on the toothbrush when it is applied. The use of fluoride toothpastes in clinical trials The Cochrane review of trials found that children who used fluoridated toothpaste had fewer decayed,missing and filled permanent teeth after three years. Brushing twice a day helps to increase the benefit of fluoride (Marinho et al. 2003 England). Researchers believe that the effects of fluoridated toothpastes are underestimated in two to three year trials due to the life long used of fluoride. They also found that the use of fluoride toothpastes in areas of fluoridated water increased the protective effects. The normal concentration of fluoride in toothpastes is between 1000 and 1100 parts per million (ppm Fˆ°). Toothpastes with higher fluoride concentrations (1500ppm) and lower fluoride concentrations (500ppm) are available in many countries. Toothpastes containing higher fluoride concentrations offer greater protection against caries (Stephen 1988; OMullane 1997). Since the 1940s, more than a 100 clinical trials have been carried out and by the late 1970s, the protective effects of fluoride toothpastes were greatly accepted. As a result, many clinical trials could not have a control, as the removal of fluoride toothpaste for the trial was considered unethical. Therefore, the effectiveness of different concentrations of fluoride toothpastes have not been investigated extensively in placebo-controlled trails. The guidelines of caries trials have since been changed in order to combat this problem, by increasing the sample size so that the measurement error could be reduced (Marinho et al. 2003 England). Children or adolescents aged sixteen or less were chosen to take part in the study carried out by Marinho et al. To assess the effect of the fluoride toothpaste, the caries increment was measured as a change in the value of the DMFS Index, in all permanent teeth erupted at the start and erupting over the course of the study. Evidence from this study suggested that the use of fluoride toothpastes leads to a 24% decrease in dmfs. The confidence intervals for this reduction were 21-28%. This means that 1.6 children need to brush with fluoride toothpaste to prevent one decayed, missing or filled tooth surface in a population where the caries increment is 2.6 DMFS per year. Where the caries increment was lower (1.1 DMFS per year), 3.7 children needed to use a fluoride toothpaste in order to avoid one decayed, missing or filled tooth surface(Marinho et al. 2003 England). There was also a substantial reduction in caries increment (37%) of deciduous teeth in a trial carried out on 2008 children aged 6 to 9 years. Another aim of the Cochrane review (Marinho et al. 2003 England) was to establish whether there was any relationship between the caries-preventive effects of fluoride toothpaste and the initial level of caries, previous exposure to fluoride and the frequency of fluoride toothpaste use on the prevented fraction. The prevented fraction (PF) is the proportion of disease occurrence in a population averted due to a protective risk factor or public health intervention (Gargiullo, Rothenberg Wilson 1995). The prevented fraction was measured as the diffe

The Bright Side of Regret Essay -- Literary Analysis

â€Å"There is no person so severely punished, as those who subject themselves to the whip of their own remorse,† wisely summates Lucius Annaeus Seneca 1st century Roman philosopher (qtd. in ThinkExist.com Quotations). Effectively illustrating this idea as a concise confessional, the short story, â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing,† is written in an autobiographical style by Tillie Olsen, contrasting the festering damage that unresolved internal remorse creates with the reassuring serenity that unconditional acceptance generates. Regretfully, this stark reality often becomes the harrowing plight of the nescient parent. That having been said, taking a closer look into Olsen’s story will undeniably prove that a conflicting introspective battle between regret and contentment can only be resolved through the emancipation of unconditional acceptance. When experiencing regret, a person has the tendency to repeatedly replay the details of whatever caused that emotion. However, recounting past events is only the first step in the healing process, but it is not the end solution. This is abundantly evident in Olsen’s story which begins with the narrator’s rapid emotional descent into regret. This happens when, as she has probably done a thousand times before, an unnamed third party questions the mother about her eldest daughter, Emily, asking how they can â€Å"help† and â€Å"understand her† better (Olsen 607), for surely she would know. Unfortunately, the answer to this request sends the mother helplessly down memory lane into regret valley. With Olsen’s strong symbolism, the reader becomes more keenly aware of the inner â€Å"torment† she feels while reminiscing about her callow method of raising Emily. Consequently, as the mother â€Å"moves†¦ back and forth† emotionally, ... ...ot have to automatically mean something negative. Therefore, though deep emotions are involved in the healing process, we now know love and acceptance, not guilt and sadness releases us from wasting precious energy on negative thinking and opens up a completely new opportunity, being able to enjoy the bright side of regret. Works Cited Page Kathryn Schulz. â€Å"Don't Regret Regret.† 2011. Video. TED Conferences, LLC, New York. Web. 24 Apr 2012. http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/kathryn_schulz_don_t_regret_regret.html Olsen, Tillie. â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing.† Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. Ed. Kennedy, X.J., and Dana Gioia. 11th ed. New York: Longman, 2011. 607- 612. Print. ThinkExist.com Quotations. â€Å"Seneca quotes.† ThinkExist.com Quotations Online. 1 Mar. 2012. Web 23 Apr. 2012. http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/seneca/

Reflecting on ‘Reflective practice’ Essay

â€Å"Maybe reflective practices offer us a way of trying to make sense of the uncertainty in our workplaces and the courage to work competently and ethically at the edge of order and chaos†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Ghaye, 2000, p.7) Reflective practice has burgeoned over the last few decades throughout various fields of professional practice and education. In some professions it has become one of the defining features of competence, even if on occasion it has been adopted – mistakenly and unreflectively – to rationalise existing practice. The allure of the ‘reflection bandwagon’ lies in the fact that it ‘rings true’ (Loughran, 2000). Within different disciplines and intellectual traditions, however, what is understood by ‘reflective practice’ varies considerably (Fook et al, 2006). Multiple and contradictory understandings of reflective practice can even be found within the same discipline. Despite this, some consensus has been achieved amid the profusion of definitions. In general, reflective practice is understood as the process of learning through and from experience towards gaining new insights of self and/or practice (Boud et al 1985; Boyd and Fales, 1983; Mezirow, 1981, Jarvis, 1992). This often involves examining assumptions of everyday practice. It also tends to involve the individual practitioner in being self-aware and critically evaluating their own responses to practice situations. The point is to recapture practice experiences and mull them over critically in order to gain new understandings and so improve future practice. This is understood as part of the process of life-long learning. Beyond these broad areas of agreement, however, contention and difficulty reign. There is debate about the extent to which practitioners should focus on themselves as individuals rather than the larger social context. There are questions about how, when, where and why reflection should take place. For busy professionals short on time, reflective practice is all too easily applied in bland, mechanical, unthinking ways, Would-be practitioners may also find it testing to stand back from painful experiences and seek to be analytical about them. In this tangle of understandings, misunderstandings and difficulties, exactly how to apply and teach reflective practice effectively has become something of a conundrum. This paper explores current ideas and debates relating to reflective practice. In the first two sections, I review key definitions and models of reflection commonly used in professional practice. Then, in the reflective spirit myself, I critically examine the actual practice of the concept, highlighting ethical, professional, pedagogic and conceptual concerns. I put forward the case that reflective practice is both complex and situated and that it cannot work if applied mechanically or simplistically. On this basis, I conclude with some tentative suggestions for how educators might nurture an effective reflective practice involving critical reflection. Defining reflective practice †¦reflection can mean all things to all people†¦it is used as a kind of umbrella or canopy term to signify something that is good or desirable†¦everybody has his or her own (usually undisclosed) interpretation of what reflection means, and this interpretation is used as the basis for trumpeting the virtues of reflection in a way that makes it sound as virtuous as motherhood. Smyth (1992, p.285) The term ‘reflective practice’ carries multiple meanings that range from the idea of professionals engaging in solitary introspection to that of engaging in critical dialogue with others. Practitioners may embrace it occasionally in formal, explicit ways or use it more fluidly in ongoing, tacit ways. For some, reflective practice simply refers to adopting a thinking approach to practice. Others see it as self-indulgent navel gazing. For others still, it  involves carefully structured and crafted approaches towards being reflective about one’s experiences in practice. For example, with reference to teacher education, Larrivee argues that: â€Å"Unless teachers develop the practice of critical reflection, they stay trapped in unexamined judgments, interpretations, assumptions, and expectations. Approaching teaching as a reflective practitioner involves fusing personal beliefs and values into a professional identity† (Larrivee, 2000, p.293). In practice, reflective practice is often seen as the bedrock of professional identity. â€Å"Reflecting on performance and acting on refection†, as McKay (2008, Forthcoming) notes, â€Å"is a professional imperative.† Indeed, it has been included in official benchmark standards laid down for professional registration and practice (see table 1 in Appendix 1). One example is in the way it has been included, explicitly and implicitly, in all Project 2000 curricula for Nursing Diplomas, while reflection is highlighted as a pivotal skill to achieve required Standards of Proficiencies in nursing and other health professional education (NMC, 2004; HPC, 2004). It has also become a key strand of approaches to the broader field of continuing professional development, work-based learning and lifelong learning (Eby, 2000; HPC, 2006). Given its growing emphasis in professional practice and education, it would seem important to explore the concept of reflective practice in some detail. To this end, this section distinguishes between different types of reflective practice and looks at the sister concepts of reflection, critical reflection and reflexivity. Reflection ‘in’ and ‘on’ practice Dewey (1933) was among the first to identify reflection as a specialised form of thinking. He considered reflection to stem from doubt, hesitation or perplexity related to a directly experienced situation. For him, this prompted purposeful inquiry and problem resolution (Sinclair, 1998). Dewey also argued that reflective thinking moved people away from routine thinking/action (guided by tradition or external authority) towards  reflective action (involving careful, critical consideration of taken-for-granted knowledge). This way of conceptualising reflection crucially starts with experience and stresses how we learn from ‘doing’, i.e. practice. Specifically Dewey argued that we ‘think the problem out’ towards formulating hypotheses in trial and error reflective situations and then use these to plan action, testing out our ideas. Dewey’s ideas provided a basis for the concept of ‘reflective practice’ which gained influence with the arrival of Schon’s (1983) ‘The reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action’. In this seminal work, Schon identified ways in which professionals could become aware of their implicit knowledge and learn from their experience. His main concern was to facilitate the development of reflective practitioners rather than describe the process of reflection per se. However, one of his most important and enduring contributions was to identify two types of reflection: reflection-on-action (after-the-event thinking) and reflection-in-action (thinking while doing). In the case of reflection-on-action, professionals are understood consciously to review, describe, analyse and evaluate their past practice with a view to gaining insight to improve future practice. With reflection-in-action, professionals are seen as examining their experiences and responses as they occur. In both types of reflection, professionals aim to connect with their feelings and attend to relevant theory. They seek to build new understandings to shape their action in the unfolding situation. In Schon’s words: The practitioner allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation which he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomenon before him, and on the prior understandings which have been implicit in his behaviour. He carries out an experiment which serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomenon and a change in the situation. (Schon, 1983, p. 68) For Schon, reflection-in-action was the core of ‘professional artistry’ – a concept he contrasted with the ‘technical-rationality’ demanded by the (still dominant) positivist paradigm whereby problems are solvable through the rigorous application of science. A contemporary example of this paradigm is the evidence-based practice movement, which favours quantitative studies  over qualitative ones, and established protocols over intuitive practice. In Schon’s view, technical-rationality failed to resolve the dilemma of ‘rigour versus relevance’ confronting professionals. Schon’s argument, since taken up by others (e.g. Fish and Coles,1998), was as follows: Professional practice is complex, unpredictable and messy. In order to cope, professionals have to be able to do more  than follow set procedures. They draw on both practical experience and theory as they think on their feet and improvise. They act both intuitively and cr eatively. Both reflection-in and on -action allows them to revise, modify and refine their expertise. Schon believed that as professionals become more expert in their practice, they developed the skill of being able to monitor and adapt their practice simultaneously, perhaps even intuitively. In contrast, novice practitioners, lacking knowing-in-action (tacit knowledge), tended to cling to rules and procedures, which they are inclined to apply mechanically. Schon argued that novices needed to step back and, from a distance, take time to think through situations. Whether expert or novice, all professionals should reflect on practice – both in general and with regard to specific situations. Schon’s work has been hugely influential – some would say ‘canonical’ – in the way it has been applied to practice and professional training and education. For example, in the health care field, Atkins and Murphy (1993) identify three stages of the reflective process. The first stage, triggered by the professional becoming aware of uncomfortable feelings and thoughts, is akin to Schon’s ‘experience of surprise’ (what Boyd and Fales, 1983, identify as ‘a sense of inner discomfort’ or ‘unfinished business’). The second stage involves a critical analysis of feelings and knowledge. The final stage of reflection involves the development of a new perspective. Atkins and Murphy argue that both cognitive and affective skills are prerequisites for reflection and that these combine in the processes of self-awareness, critical analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see Appendix 2). In the education field, Grushka, Hinde-McLeod and Reynolds (2005) distinguish between ‘reflection for action’, ‘reflection in action’ and ‘reflection on action’ (see Appendix 3). They offer a series of technical, practical and critical questions for teachers to engage with. For example, under reflection for action teachers are advised to consider their resources and how long the lesson will take (technical); how to make the resources relevant to different learning styles (practical); and to question why they are teaching this particular topic (critical). Zeichner and Liston (1996) differentiate between five different levels at which reflection can take place during teaching: 1. Rapid reflection – immediate, ongoing and automatic action by the teacher. 2. Repair – in which a thoughtful teacher makes decisions to alter their behaviour in response to students’ cues. 3. Review – when a teacher thinks about, discusses or writes about some element of their teaching. 4. Research – when a teacher engages in more systematic and sustained thinking over time, perhaps by collecting data or reading research. 5. Retheorizing and reformulating – the process by which a teacher critically examines their own practice and theories in the light of academic theories. While Schon’s work has inspired many such models of reflection and categories of reflective practice, it has also drawn criticism. Eraut (2004) faults the work for its lack of precision and clarity. Boud and Walker (1998) argue that Schon’s analysis ignores critical features of the context of reflection. Usher et al (1997) find Schon’s account and methodology unreflexive, while Smyth (1989) deplores the atheoretical and apolitical quality of his conceptions. Greenwood (1993), meanwhile, targets Schon for downplaying the importance of reflection-before-action. Moon (1999) regards Schon’s pivotal concept of reflection-in-action as unachievable, while Ekebergh (2006) draws on  phenomenological philosophy to argue that it is not possible to distance oneself from the lived situation to reflect in the moment. To achieve real self-reflection, she asserts, one needs to step out of the situation and reflect retrospectively (van Manen, 1990). Given this level of criticism, questions have to raised about the wide adoption of Schon’s work and the way  it has been applied in professional practice and education (Usher et al, 1997). There have been calls for a m ore critical, reflexive exploration of the nature of reflective practice. Reflection, critical reflection and reflexivity Contemporary writing on reflective practice invites professionals to engage in both personal reflection and broader social critique. For example, work within the Open University’s Health and Social Care faculty has put forward a model whereby reflective practice is seen as a synthesis of reflection, self-awareness and critical thinking (Eby, 2000) (see figure 1). In this model, the philosophical roots of reflective practice are identified in phenomenology (with its focus on lived experience and personal consciousness) and also in critical theory (which fosters the development of a critical consciousness towards emancipation and resisting oppression ). Self-awareness Roots: phenomenology – The cognitive ability to think, feel, sense and know through intuition – To evaluate the knowledge derived through self-awareness to develop understanding Reflection Roots: existential phenomenology and critical theory -interpretive and critical theory – tool for promoting self- and social awareness and social action – improving self-expression, learning and co-operation – links theory and practice Reflective Practice Critical thinking Roots: scepticism and critical theory – identifying and challenging assumptions – challenging the importance of context – to imagine and explore alternatives which leads to reflective scepticism Figure 1 Skills underpinning the concept of reflective practice. Other authors argue for the concept of critical reflection, which is seen as offering a more thorough-going form of reflection through the use of critical theory (Brookfield, 1995). For adherents of critical reflection, reflection on its own tends to â€Å"remain at the level of relatively undisruptive changes in techniques or superficial thinking† (Fook, White and Gardner, 2006, p.9). In contrast, critical reflection involves attending to discourse and social and political analysis; it seeks to enable transformative social action and change. For Fook (2006), critical reflection  Ã¢â‚¬Å"enables an understanding of the way (socially dominant) assumptions may be socially restrictive, and thus enables new, more empowering ideas and practices. Critical reflection thus enables social change beginning at individual levels. Once individuals become aware of the hidden power of ideas they have absorbed unwittingly from their social contexts, they are then freed to make choices on their own terms.† Fook and Askeland argue that the focus of critical reflection should be on connecting individual identity and social context:  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Part of the power of critical reflection in opening up new perspectives and  choices about practice may only be realized if the connections between individual thinking and identity, and dominant social beliefs are articulated and realized.† (Fook and Askeland, 2006, p.53). For Reynolds (1998), four characteristics distinguish critical reflection from other versions of reflection : (1) its concern to question assumptions; (2) its social rather than individual focus; (3) the particular attention it pays to the analysis of power relations; and (4) its pursuit of emancipation (Reynolds, 1998). By way of example, Reynolds argues that when managers critically reflect (rather than just reflect) they become aware of the wider environment in which they operate. They begin to grasp the social power exercised by their organisation through its networks and relationships. : In the field of teaching, Brookfield (1995) characterises critical reflection as ‘stance and dance’. The critically reflective teacher’s stance toward teaching is one of inquiry and being open to further investigation. The dance involves experimentation and risk towards modifying practice while moving to fluctuating, and possibly contradictory, rhythms (Larrivee, 2000). A key concept giving momentum to the idea of reflective practice involving both personal reflection and social critique is reflexivity. Reflexive practitioners engage in critical self-reflection: reflecting critically on the impact of their own background, assumptions, positioning, feelings, behaviour while also attending to the impact of the wider organisational, discursive, ideological and political context. The terms reflection, critical reflection and reflexivity are often confused and wrongly assumed to be interchangeable. Finlay and Gough (2003, p. ix) find it helpful to think of these concepts forming a continuum. At one end stands reflection, defined simply as ‘thinking about’ something after the event. At the other end stands reflexivity: a more immediate and dynamic process which involves continuing self-awareness. Critical reflection lies somewhere in between. Previously, I’ve proposed five overlapping variants of reflexivity with critical selfreflection at the core: introspection; intersubjective reflection; mutual collaboration; social critique and ironic deconstruction (Finlay, 2002, 2003). These variants can similarly be applied to  distinguishing between the types of reflection practitioners could engage in when reflecting on practice. Reflective practice as introspection involves the practitioner in solitary self-dialogue in which they probe personal meanings and  emotions. Intersubjective reflection makes the practitioner focus on the relational context, on the emergent, negotiated nature of practice encounters. With mutual collaboration, a participatory, dialogical approach to reflective practice is sought – what Ghaye (2000) calls a ‘reflective conversation’. Here, for example, a mentor and student, or members of a team, seek to solve problems collaboratively. Reflective practice as social critique focuses attention on the wider discursive, social and political context. For instance, the practitioner may think about coercive institutional practices or seek to manage the power imbalances inherent in education/practice contexts. Finally, reflective practice as ironic deconstruction would cue into postmodern and poststructural imperatives to deconstruct discursive practices and represent something of the ambiguity and multiplicity of meanings in particular organisational and social contexts. At the very least, a critical and possibly satirical gaze could be turned to challenging the ubiquitously unreflexive rhetoric of reflective practice. In practice, introspection is the dominant mode of reflective practice. Sometimes presented as merely a promising personal attribute (Loughran , 2006), it is a predominantly individualistic and personal exercise (Reynolds and Vince, 2004) in which practitioners tend to focus on their own thoughts, feelings, behaviours and evaluations. This passes as legitimate ‘reflective practice’ which professionals then can use to advance their cause to fit formal requirements for continuing professional development. While such reflective practice may take place in dialogical contexts such as supervision sessions, the onus stays on the individual practitioner to reflect upon and evaluate their own practice. What is lacking is any mutual, reciprocal, shared process. Institutional structures and quality assurance  systems encourage, perhaps even require, this individual focus. It starts early on during professional education and training where learners engage professional socialisation and are taught how to reflect, using structured models of reflection. One of the consequences of the lack of consensus and clarity about the concept of reflective practice is the proliferation of different versions and models to operationalise reflective practice.

hitlers rise to power5 essays

hitlers rise to power5 essays On 30th January 1933, Hindenburg received Hitler in audience and appointed him chancellor. It came as a shock to some people but many believed that Hitlers rise to power was inevitable. Some state that Hitler could not have risen to power in any country other than Germany, implying that he was nothing more than a product of German culture. Others say that Hitler rose to power by means of his political genius. And yet still others claim that it was the weak democratic government of the Weimar Republic, and Germanys social and economic scene in the 1930s that made the people restless and ready for a dictator to come to power. There was no single reason for Hitlers rise to power. However the main reasons were that the political and economic chaos of the 1920s and the 1930s joined forces with German culture that enabled Hitler to rise to power. Both play an equal part. Together, both created a unique situation for Hitlers rise. Hitler was in part a product of German culture. German culture at the time stood out as particularly aggressive and racist. The values and ideas found in this cultures history inspired Hitler to do many things that he did and can explain in part why he felt the way he did on certain issues. For example there were talks of the master race in the past history of Germany by the German philosophers, which might have given Hitler his ideas on the Aryan race. Many people believe that German culture is by nature racist, militaristic, and anti-Semitic. Germany was an opportune place for Hitler to come to power. German people, feeling confused by the social and economic chaos of the 1920s an d 1930s could do nothing but gravitate towards someone like Hitler. Hitler had answers for everyones problems. He promised to restore order and greatness. And many people accepted Hitler with open arms. Which was partly due to poor alternatives and due to the fact tha...

Advantages and Disadvantages of Federalism essays

Advantages and Disadvantages of Federalism essays Advantages and Disadvantages of Federalism Federalism is a system where final decisions are dispersed among local governments representing specific and sometimes overlapping geographical areas. These governmental units have, as constituents, people of different social, political, moral and economic persuasions. Together with the idea of locally elected officials, self government, and diversity of interests, the federal system can be susceptible to manipulation by narrow local interests and legislation diluted by compromise at the expense of national or regional interests. On the other hand the strength of the federal system lies in its ability to provide access to governmental decision making by those affected. It provides power to all levels of government, requires political flexibility and protects individual liberty. As James Madison argues in the Federalist papers: the smaller the unit of government, the easier it would be for a single interest to dominate it. But these units in a large republic would be so many that they would actually provide more opportunities for relevant issues to be recognized and heard. The system of federal government has, therefore, resulted in a disparity in equality and participation. Citizens are treated differently depending on where they live and the dominating sentiments. Criteria for welfare, legal sanctions, spending programs are quite different among the states and sometimes even among counties. Thus, it was not wholly irrational that blacks were treated differently in the south than in the north, even after emancipation. But these differences are a result of participation in the decision-making process, albeit for conflicting and opposite results. On the up side, there is a competition of sorts among the states in the area of public policy, a market place of social experimentation. Some states are far ahead than others in changing social policy to serve the needs of it ...

Why I Want to Study Msc in Finance and Investment and How I Feel I Can Essay

Why I Want to Study Msc in Finance and Investment and How I Feel I Can Contribute to the Course - Essay Example I attribute this to the environment I grew in where most people were business people who had invested in different sectors of the economy. I undertook the course of Finance and Investment during my undergraduate programme and I would like to get a deeper understanding of the field. This would be possible through a MSC undertaking in the course. I want to gain the necessary skills and knowledge needed in the sphere in order for me to have first hand information when approaching investment situations. The understanding that I inherently have in issues of investment and finance also plays one of the most significant roles in my choice of pursuance of the MSC course in Finance and investment. Among my understanding is the appreciation that money which is invested wisely will generate more money, thus, boosting a country’s economy (John, 2006, p. 58). In the contemporary society, entrepreneurship is the only way of building a country’s economy since job opportunities are min imal. Due to this, it is very important for one to understand how to identify opportunities and strategize appropriately on how to use the available resources to generate more money. In this regard I will play a role in boosting the economy. MSc in finance and investment will enable me to understand behavioral finance.

Drinking and Driving (Cause and Effect) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Drinking and Driving (Cause and Effect) - Essay Example Nonetheless, the adverse effects of alcohol, when it is already time to take a drive to some other place or back to home, cause people to be susceptible to vehicle – related accidents which lead to injuries and deaths. Alcohol is a major cause in vehicle – related collisions that lead to injuries and deaths among people (Hingson and Winter 63). The numbers of recorded alcohol – related traffic deaths have declined since the early 1980s. However, even if this is the case, in United States, alcohol is still a significant factor which contributes to vehicle – related fatalities. In fact in 2002, alcohol had significantly contributed about four (4) out of ten (10) fatalities due to vehicular accidents. Among all the alcohol – related clashes, about 42 resulted to injury while about 4 percent caused death. Whereas the case of non – alcohol – related vehicular clashes, about 31 percent resulted to injury while only 0.6 percent led to death ( Hingson and Winter 64). ... Since the younger population are much more engaged in drinking alcohol than the older segment, the young people are more likely to get injured or die in vehicular accidents. This is supported by Maskalyk in the account of â€Å"Driving and Drinking† (313) and Hingson and Winter in â€Å"Epidemiology and Consequences of Drinking and Driving† (63 - 78) which are both written in 2003. Apart from that, Hingson and Winter claimed that more males are probably involved in alcohol – related vehicular accidents than females (64). This is for the reason that males are more involved in alcohol drinking as well as they are much heavier drinkers than females. Alcohol does not only put the lives of those who are driving while drunk at risk for it has also seriously endangered and destroyed the lives of other people than these drunk drivers. In fact, there are many people other than the drunk drivers who get injured or killed. Hingson and Winter stated in 2002, that about 44 pe rcent of the deaths in vehicular crashes had involved some drunk drivers. In these numbers of fatalities, about 22 percent were the drunk drivers’ passengers; about 13 percent comprised the pedestrians; about 7 percent were the drivers of the other vehicles which had been hit by the drunk drivers; and about 2 % happened to be bicyclists (64). On the one hand, Blum has written an article entitled â€Å"Drunk Driving: How it Hurts† which talks about a teen activist named Jackie Myers struggle against drunk driving (14 – 16). Myers has lost five of her family members on a vehicular collision with a nineteen year old drunk driver. At first, Myers had considered that driving while drunk is just normal until she suffered from the effect